Imperialism and Nationalism:  A Review

When the United States acquired an empire from the Spanish-American War, they immediately faced the burden of an imperialist power--the necessity of repressing the desire of native peoples for autonomy and freedom.  In the Philippines, American soldiers lost over 4,000 lives putting down the Filipino Insurrection.  In the proceess, they resorted to questionable methods and tactics--forcing civilians into reconcentration camps and murdering Filipinos, burning villages, and more--that were kept hidden from the press.  Then-President William McKinley ordered the Army to censor press reports from the Islands.  Nevertheless, reports from soldiers reached the American public.  Congress held hearings and the Army court-martialed three generals over atrocities.  Opponents of Imperialism viewed American conduct in the Philippines as proof of the dangers empire posed to a republic.

World War I

The lessons of World War I emphasized the strength of nationalism as a force for violent change.  The suppression of cultural and ethnic minorities within the Austro-Hungarian empire led directly to the outbreak of the Great War.  When the United States finally joined the conflict in 1917, President Woodrow Wilson issued his statement of America's war aims. the Fourteen Points, that called for "self-determination of minorities."  Thus point reflected Wilson's view that realization of nationalist aims of minorities might have prevented the carnage of World War I.  However, in the aftermath of war, the Allies--all of them great imperial powers--ignored this point as they carved up the non-European elements the German and Ottoman empires into "mandates" that were colonies in all but name.  

From the former Ottoman empire, Great Britain received a mandate over Egypt, Palestine, Transjordan, and Saudi Arabia.   France received a mandate over Mesopatamia, Lebanon, and Syria.  Although Britain granted independence to Egypt in 1922, Egypt remained an economic colony as the British retained control over key economic institutions, including the Suez Canal.  Saudi Arabia received its independence in 1936, but Britain retained its mandate over Transjordan until 1946 and Palestine until 1948.  The French recognized Mesoptamia as the nation of Iraq in 1921, but retained its mandate over Lebanon until 1943 and Syria until 1946.  The country of Iran asserted its independence from Britain and Russia after World War I.

The interests of western nations in the Middle East revolved increasingly around oil.  Western (particularly British and French) oil companies exercised virtual monopolies over most of the Middle East's oil supplies.  As was the case elsewhere, imperialist demands for raw materials, together with racism, overrode any moral commitments to freedom and democracy for native peoples.  The mandate powers, or their puppet governments, ignored popular desires for self-rule.  However, World War II would drain the strength of these imperialist powers, even as it increased Western demands for Middle Eastern oil, and open the way for the realization of nationhood.

World War II

With the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939, oil supplies for the warring powers became critical.  British control of Egypt and the Suez Canal, through which most Middle Eastern oil flowed, made it the target of German hostility.  General Erwin Rommel attempted to gain control of the Canal, but fell short at the Battle of El Alamein.  In June 1941, Germany invaded its erstwhile ally, the Soviet Union, increasing the military demands for oil by commiting the Third Reich to a two-front war.  In 1942, the Germans pushed towards the Soviet oil fields of the Caucusus, but fell short at the Seige of Stalingrad.  Meanwhile, in a move designed to secure their own oild supplies, Great Britain and the Soviet Union occupied the oil-rich country of Iran in 1941.  

After the war, Britain and France regained control of their mandate territories in the Middle East, and the British continued their joint occupation of Iran with the Soviets.  However, following a temporary withdrawal from Iran in December 1945, the Soviets occupied parts of northern Iran and sponsored the formation of two Communist states.  After negotiation in which the Soviets received concessions for future oil supplies, they withdrew once again, but remained an omnipresent threat along the Iranian northern border.

Independence and Israel

In response to nationalist pressures, Britain recognized the indendence of some of its Middle Eastern territories after the war.  In 1946, the British recognized the Hashemite kingdom of Jordan as an independent nation.  In Palestine, the British reluctantly withdrew their forces in 1948 after the United Nations the state of Israel.  In the power vaccuum following the British withdrawal, the neighboring Arab states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria (created from the French mandate of Mesopotamia in 1946) invaded Israel.  Israel successfully defended its new borders, but remained vulnerable to future hostility.

The Arab defeat at the hands of Israel dealt a profound blow to the political stability of the newly independent Arab states.  Continued Western domination of their economies also created political unrest.

Iran

In Iran, British and French oil companies continued to dominate the production of oil.  Meanwhile, a new government replaced that of the old Qajar dynasty.  The government recognized Shah Reza Pahlevi as the hereditary ruler of Iran.  However, in 1951, a militant nationalist named Mohammed Mossadegh became prime minister of the national assembly and overthrew the Shah.  That same year, Mussadegh nationalized all the holdings of the Western oil companies in Iran.  In 1952, the forces of the Shah, with the connivance of the U. S. Central Intelligence Agency, overthew Mossadegh, and installed the Shah's son, Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, as the head of state.  The new Shah signed deals with British, French, American, and Dutch oil companies allowing them access to Iran's oil.

Egypt and the Suez Crisis

In Egypt, the early promise of nationalism failed to deliver on hopes for Egyptian autonomy.  The Egyptian Wafd party along with the powerful Muslim Brotherhood led uprisings against the government.  Then, in 1952, a group of Egyptian army officers led by Col. Gamel Abdul Nasser took control of the government.   Nasser proposed an ambitious development program for Egypt.  He sought support from the Western nations, the World Bank, and the U. N., but found his efforts blocked.  Soon, he turned to the Soviet Union for assistance.  Nasser was not a Communist, but he was a nationalist.  Nasser espoused a powerful secular doctrine of nationalism for the Arabs ("pan-Arabism"), and condemned continued Western domination of Egypt--particularly the continued control of the Suez Canal by Great Britain.  In 1956, Nasser took control of Suez and nationalized the canal .  Before the U. S. could proffer a response, British, French, and Israeli forces invaded Egypt and retook control of the Suez Canal.  Furious that our Allies had failed to consult or inform us of their intentions, President Eisenhower refused to support the Suez invasion and instead called upon the United Nations to intervene in the dispute.  Eventually, U.N. forces replaced the invading forces in control of the Canal and eventually returned the canal to Egypt.

The Baghdad Pact, CENTO, and OPEC

Alarmed by the unrest in the Middle East, President Eisenhower confirmed the U.S. commitment to containing Communism in the Middle East.  In 1957, the president issued the Eisenhower Doctrine in which the U. S. pledged billions of dollars in aid to Middle Eastern countries to help fight Communism.  In 1958, the U. S. sponsored the organization of a defensive alliance of pro-Western governments in the Middle East.  The Baghdad Pact initially consisted of Iraq, Iran, the U. S., Pakistan, and Turkey.  After Iraq's withdrawal, the organization was renamed The Central Treaty Organization (CENTO).  In 1960, the U.S. backed the organization of Oil Producing and Exporting Countries (OPEC) to secure the West's oil supplies.  Original members consisted of Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Venezuela.

Sources:   http://www.arab.net
                  http://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/MiddleEast/SuezNat.html

Go to:  Vietnam